COUNTRY MUSIC

What is Country Music?
Whenever people talk about country music, the question arises about how to define it? There are more different views than there are songs. Here are some answers!

A) Years ago John Minson and Max Ellis were on a promotional trip for the Tamworth Festival and in the course of talking to a number of journalists whose total knowledge of country music was two words… Slim Dusty… they kept getting asked just what was meant by the term Country Music.
Of course the answer is that Country Music means different things to different people. Ask 20 people and you’ll get 20 answers. Most of them are unequivocally positive that their definition is the only authorised version. Sounds religious? That’s because for many it is a matter of faith, with different denominations conducting a war of words over which version is the true gospel.
So John and Max, as practical types, attempted a general specification summarising some of the specific characteristics which set country aside from other types of music.

1 A simple Chord progression. Generally country depends on a limited number of chords. It is not musically complicated and this certainly contributes to its popularity and playability.

2 Country music should have a strong story line. “The Band Played Waltzing Matilda” or “Pub With No Beer”, illustrate the point.

3 The song should have a simple and memorable chorus, which supports the storyline and is one reason so many people find it easy to recall and sing a good country song.

4 Identifiable instrumentation. Organs, orchestras, strings, wind instruments are NOT country. Guitars, banjos, fiddles, pedal steel guitars, harmonicas definitely are. There are exceptions of course but instruments must be played in a country manner.
Some say that geographic locations are a factor, insisting that a non urban setting is an essential ingredient. But there are plenty of examples of successful country songs that don’t have country locations.

Summarising
Simple chords, Strong storyline, Memorable chorus, country Instruments.
Max Ellis
Adapted from a story in Capital News September 1981
Here are some more definitions
A) Must sound like Tex, Buddy or Slim in the 40s and 50s and be about some aspect of rural life.
B) If it sounds like country it is.
C) If the cheque comes from Nashville, it's country!
D) Finally a definition from a multinational advertising agency discussing “country” from a life style and marketing point of view. Not specifically about music but country music is identified as a influential element in this general “country”.
"Country" exists as a cluster of attitudes, beliefs, symbols and signs in the minds of consumers, giving us clear messages about their aspirations. It represents simplicity, purity and authenticity, a quality of life made up of relationships and roost; it conveys warmth and friendliness. These are all qualities that consumers in the pressured and uncertain '90s value and that are all the more powerful because they represent our yearnings, not the reality of our lives."

Country music is a popular American musical style that began in the Southern United States in the 1920s.[1]
The term country music gained popularity in the 1940s in preference to the earlier term hillbilly music. The term country music is used today to describe many styles and subgenres.
Harlan Howard stated "Country music is three chords and the truth."
Take your pick!!!

Early history
Immigrants to the Maritime Provinces and Southern Appalachian Mountains of North America brought the music and instruments of the Old World along with them for nearly 300 years. They brought some of their most important valuables with them, and to most of them this was an instrument: “Early Scottish settlers enjoyed the fiddle because it could be played to sound sad and mournful or bright and bouncy”[3] The Irish fiddle, the German derived dulcimer, the Italian mandolin, the Spanish guitar, and the West African banjo[4] were the most common musical instruments. The interactions among musicians from different ethnic groups produced music unique to this region of North America. Appalachian string bands of the early 20th century primarily consisted of the fiddle, guitar, and banjo.[5] This early country music along with early recorded country music is often referred to as old-time music.
According to Bill Malone in Country Music U.S.A, country music was “introduced to the world as a southern phenomenon."[6] In the South, folk music was a combination of cultural strains, combining musical traditions of a variety of ethnic groups in the region. For example, some instrumental pieces from Anglo-British and Irish immigrants were the basis of folk songs and ballads that form what is now known as old time music, from which country music descended. It is commonly thought that British and Irish folk music influenced the development of old time music. British and Irish arrivals to the Southern U.S. included immigrants from Scotland, Wales, Ireland, and England.
Often, when many people think or hear country music, they think of it as a creation of European-Americans. However, a great deal of style—and of course, the banjo, a major instrument in most early American folk songs—came from African Americans. One of the reasons country music was created by African-Americans, as well as European-Americans, is because blacks and whites in rural communities in the south often worked and played together, just as recollected by DeFord Bailey[7] in the PBS documentary, DeFord Bailey: A Legend Lost.[8]
Throughout the 19th century, several immigrant groups from Europe, most notably from Ireland, Germany, Spain, and Italy moved to Texas. These groups interacted with Mexican and Native American, and U.S. communities that were already established in Texas. As a result of this cohabitation and extended contact, Texas has developed unique cultural traits that are rooted in the culture of all of its founding communities.

1920s
Local performers from Atlanta and Fort Worth were being played on radio stations in 1922. Along with local performers, barn-dance programs became popular among radio stations as well. Some record companies in Georgia turned away early artists such as Fiddlin' John Carson; while others realized that his music would fit perfectly with the lifestyle of the country's agricultural employees.[10] The first commercial recordings of what was considered country music were "Arkansas Traveler" and "Turkey in the Straw" by fiddlers Henry Gilliland & A.C. (Eck) Robertson on June 30, 1922 for Victor Records.[11] Columbia Records began issuing records with "hillbilly" music (series 15000D "Old Familiar Tunes") as early as 1924.
A year earlier on June 14, 1923, Fiddlin' John Carson recorded "Little Log Cabin in the Lane" for Okeh Records.[13] Vernon Dalhart was the first country singer to have a nationwide hit in May 1924 with "Wreck of the Old '97".[14][15] The flip side of the record was "Lonesome Road Blues," which also became very popular.[16] In April 1924, "Aunt" Samantha Bumgarner and Eva Davis became the first female musicians to record and release country songs.[17]
Many "hillbilly" musicians, such as Cliff Carlisle, recorded blues songs throughout the decade[18] and into the 30s. Other important early recording artists were Riley Puckett, Don Richardson, Fiddlin' John Carson, Uncle Dave Macon, Al Hopkins, Ernest V. Stoneman, Charlie Poole and the North Carolina Ramblers and The Skillet Lickers.[19] The steel guitar entered country music as early as 1922, when Jimmie Tarlton met famed Hawaiian guitarist Frank Ferera on the West Coast.[20]
Jimmie Rodgers and the Carter Family are widely considered to be important early country musicians. Their songs were first captured at a historic recording session in Bristol on August 1, 1927, where Ralph Peer was the talent scout and sound recordist.[21][22] A scene in the movie O Brother, Where Art Thou? (film) depicts a similar occurrence in the same timeframe.
Rodgers fused hillbilly country, gospel, jazz, blues, pop, cowboy, and folk; and many of his best songs were his compositions, including “Blue Yodel”,[23] which sold over a million records and established Rodgers as the premier singer of early country music.[24][25]
Beginning in 1927, and for the next 17 years the Carters recorded some 300 old-time ballads, traditional tunes, country songs and Gospel hymns, all representative of America's southeastern folklore and heritage.
1930s–1940s
One effect of the Great Depression was to reduce the number of records that could be sold. Radio, and broadcasting, became a popular source of entertainment, and "barn dance" shows featuring country music were started all over the South, as far north as Chicago, and as far west as California.
The most important was the Grand Ole Opry, aired starting in 1925 by WSM-AM in Nashville to the present day. Some of the early stars on the Opry were Uncle Dave Macon, Roy Acuff and African American harmonica player DeFord Bailey. WSM's 50,000 watt signal (1934) could often be heard across the country,[27]
Many musicians performed and recorded songs in any number of styles. Moon Mullican, for example, played Western swing, but also recorded songs that can be called rockabilly. Bill Haley sang cowboy songs, and was at one time a cowboy yodeler. Haley became most famous as an early player of rock n roll, adding Jimmie Rodgers-stylings to his environment, thus creating a sound that was very much his own. Between 1947 and 1949, country crooner Eddy Arnold placed eight songs in the top 10.

Singing cowboys and Western swing
Main article: Western music (North America)
During the 1930s and 1940s, cowboy songs, or Western music, which had been recorded since the 1920s, were popularized by films made in Hollywood. Some of the popular singing cowboys from the era were Gene Autry, the Sons of the Pioneers and Roy Rogers.[29]
And it wasn't only cowboys; cowgirls contributed to the sound in various family groups. Patsy Montana opened the door for female artists with her history making song "I Want To Be a Cowboy's Sweetheart". This would begin a movement toward opportunities for women to have successful solo careers.
Bob Wills was another country musician from the Lower Great Plains who had become very popular as the leader of a “hot string band,” and who also appeared in Hollywood Westerns. His mix of country and jazz, which started out as dance hall music, would become known as Western swing. Spade Cooley and Tex Williams also had very popular bands and appeared in films. At its height, Western swing rivaled the popularity of other big band jazz.
[edit] Changing instrumentation
Drums were scorned by early country musicians as being "too loud" and "not pure," but by 1935 Western swing big band leader Bob Wills had added drums to the Texas Playboys. In the mid 1940s, the Grand Ole Opry did not want the Playboys’ drummer to appear on stage. Although drums were commonly used by rockabilly groups by 1955, the less-conservative-than-the-Grand Ole Opry Louisiana Hayride kept its infrequently used drummer back stage as late as 1956. By the early 1960s, however, it was rare that a country band didn't have a drummer.[30]
Bob Wills was one of the first country musicians known to have added an electric guitar to his band, in 1938.[31] A decade later (1948) Arthur Smith achieved top 10 US country chart success with his MGM Records recording of "Guitar Boogie", which crossed over to the US pop chart, introducing many people to the potential of the electric guitar. For several decades Nashville session players preferred the warm tones of the Gibson and Gretsch archtop electrics, but a “hot” Fender style, utilizing guitars which became available beginning in the early 1950s, eventually prevailed as the signature guitar sound of country.
Hillbilly boogie
Country musicians began recording boogie in 1939, shortly after it had been played at Carnegie Hall, when Johnny Barfield recorded "Boogie Woogie." The trickle of what was initially called hillbilly boogie, or okie boogie (later to be renamed country boogie), became a flood beginning in late 1945. One notable release from this period was the Delmore Brothers' "Freight Train Boogie," considered to be part of the combined evolution of country music and blues towards rockabilly. In 1948, Arthur "Guitar Boogie" Smith achieved top ten US country chart success with his MGM Records recordings of "Guitar Boogie" and "Banjo Boogie," with the former crossing over to the US pop charts.[33] Other country boogie artists included Merrill Moore and Tennessee Ernie Ford. The hillbilly boogie period lasted into the 1950s and remains one of many subgenres of country into the 21st century.
Bluegrass, folk and gospel

Red Foley
By the end of World War II, "mountaineer" string band music known as bluegrass had emerged when Bill Monroe joined with Lester Flatt and Earl Scruggs, introduced by Roy Acuff at the Grand Ole Opry. Gospel music, too, remained a popular component of country music. Red Foley, the biggest country star following World War II, had one of the first million-selling gospel hits ("Peace In The Valley") and also sang boogie, blues and rockabilly.
In the post-war period, country music was called "folk" in the trades, and "hillbilly" within the industry. [34] In 1944, The Billboard replaced the term "hillbilly" with "folk songs and blues," and switched to "country" or "country and Western" in 1949.
Honky tonk
Another type of stripped down and raw music with a variety of moods and a basic ensemble of guitar, bass, dobro or steel guitar (and later) drums became popular, especially among poor white southerners. It became known as honky tonk and had its roots in Texas. Bob Wills and His Texas Playboys personified this music which has been described as "a little bit of this, and a little bit of that, a little bit of black and a little bit of white...just loud enough to keep you from thinking too much and to go right on ordering the whiskey."[37] East Texan Al Dexter had a hit with "Honky Tonk Blues," and seven years later "Pistol Packin' Mama".[38] These "honky tonk" songs associated barrooms, were performed by the likes of Ernest Tubb, Ted Daffan, Floyd Tillman, and the Maddox Brothers and Rose, Lefty Frizzell and Hank Williams, would later be called "traditional" country. Williams' influence in particular would prove to be enormous, inspiring many of the pioneers of rock and roll, such as Elvis Presley and Jerry Lee Lewis, as well as Chuck Berry and Ike Turner, while providing a framework for emerging honky tonk talents like George Jones. Webb Pierce was the top-charting country artist of the 1950s, with 13 of his singles spending 113 weeks at number one. He charted 48 singles during the decade; 31 reached the top ten and 26 reached the top four.
[edit] 1950s–1960s
See also: 1950s in music and 1960s in music
By the early 1950s a blend of Western swing, country boogie, and honky tonk was played by most country bands, but a new style was about to become popular.[39]
[edit] Rockabilly
Main article: Rockabilly
Rockabilly was most popular with country fans in the 1950s, and 1956 could be called the year of rockabilly in country music. Rockabilly was a mixture of rock-and-roll and hillbilly music. During this period Elvis Presley converted over to country music. He played a huge role in the music industry during this time. The number two, three and four songs on Billboard's charts for that year were Elvis Presley, "Heartbreak Hotel"; Johnny Cash, "I Walk the Line"; and Carl Perkins, "Blue Suede Shoes".[40]

Johnny Cash
Cash and Presley placed songs in the top 5 in 1958 with No. 3 "Guess Things Happen That Way/Come In, Stranger" by Cash, and No. 5 by Presley "Don't/I Beg Of You."[41] Presley acknowledged the influence of rhythm and blues artists and his style, saying "The colored folk been singin' and playin' it just the way I'm doin' it now, man for more years than I know." But he also said, "My stuff is just hopped-up country."[37] Within a few years, many rockabilly musicians returned to a more mainstream style or had defined their own unique style.
Country music gained national television exposure through Ozark Jubilee on ABC-TV and radio from 1955–1960 from Springfield, Missouri. The program showcased top stars including several rockabilly artists, some from the Ozarks. As Webb Pierce put it in 1956, "Once upon a time, it was almost impossible to sell country music in a place like New York City. Nowadays, television takes us everywhere, and country music records and sheet music sell as well in large cities as anywhere else."[42]
The late 1950s saw the emergence of the Lubbock sound, but by the end of the decade, backlash as well as traditional artists such as Ray Price, Marty Robbins, and Johnny Horton began to shift the industry away from the rock n' roll influences of the mid-50s.
[edit] The Nashville and countrypolitan sounds
Main article: Nashville sound
Beginning in the mid 1950s, and reaching its peak during the early 1960s, the Nashville sound turned country music into a multimillion-dollar industry centered in Nashville, Tennessee. Under the direction of producers such as Chet Atkins, Owen Bradley, and later Billy Sherrill, the sound brought country music to a diverse audience and helped revive country as it emerged from a commercially fallow period.[43]

Jim Reeves
This subgenre was notable for borrowing from 1950s pop stylings: a prominent and "smooth" vocal, backed by a string section and vocal chorus. Instrumental soloing was de-emphasized in favor of trademark "licks". Leading artists in this genre included Patsy Cline, Jim Reeves and Eddy Arnold. The "slip note" piano style of session musician Floyd Cramer was an important component of this style.
Nashville's pop song structure became more pronounced and it morphed into what was called countrypolitan. Countrypolitan was aimed straight at mainstream markets and it sold well throughout the later 1960s into the early 1970s. Top artists included Tammy Wynette and Charlie Rich.
[edit] Country soul - crossover
Main article: Country soul
In 1962, Ray Charles surprised the pop world by turning his attention to country and western music, topping the charts and rating number three for the year on Billboard's pop chart[44] with the "I Can't Stop Loving You" single, and recording the landmark album Modern Sounds in Country and Western Music.
[edit] The Bakersfield sound
Main article: Bakersfield sound
Another genre of country music grew out of hardcore honky tonk with elements of Western swing and originated 112 miles (180 km) north-northwest of Los Angeles in Bakersfield, California. Influenced by one-time West Coast residents Bob Wills and Lefty Frizzell, by 1966 it was known as the Bakersfield sound. It relied on electric instruments and amplification, in particular the Telecaster electric guitar, more than other subgenres of country of the era, and can be described as having a sharp, hard, driving, no-frills, edgy flavor. Leading practitioners of this style were Buck Owens, Merle Haggard, Tommy Collins, Dwight Yoakam, Gary Allan, and Wynn Stewart, each of whom had his own style.[45][46]
[edit] Country rock
Main article: Country rock
The late 1960s in American music produced a unique blend as a result of traditionalist backlash within separate genres. In the aftermath of the British Invasion, many desired a return to the "old values" of rock n' roll. At the same time there was a lack of enthusiasm in the country sector for Nashville-produced music. What resulted was a crossbred genre known as country rock.
Early innovators in this new style of music in the 60s and 70s included Bob Dylan who was the first to revert to country music with his 1967 album John Wesley Harding followed by rock n' roll icon band The Byrds (Gram Parsons on "Sweethearts of the Rodeo") and its spin-off The Flying Burrito Brothers (also featuring Gram Parsons), guitarist Clarence White, Michael Nesmith (Monkees and First National Band), the Grateful Dead, Neil Young, Commander Cody, The Allman Brothers, The Marshall Tucker Band, Poco, Buffalo Springfield, and The Eagles among many. The Rolling Stones also got into the act with songs like "Honky Tonk Women" and "Dead Flowers".
Described by Allmusic as the "father of country-rock",[47] Gram Parsons' work in the early '70s was acclaimed for its purity and for his appreciation for aspects of traditional country music.[48] Though his career was cut tragically short by his 1973 death, his legacy was carried on by his mentee and duet partner Emmylou Harris; Harris would release her debut solo in 1975, an amalgamation of country, rock and roll, folk, blues and pop.
Subsequent to the initial blending of the two polar opposite genres, other offspring soon resulted, including Southern rock, heartland rock and in more recent years, alternative country.
In the decades that followed, artists such as Juice Newton; Alabama; Hank Williams, Jr.; Gary Allan; Shania Twain; Brooks & Dunn; Faith Hill; Garth Brooks; Dwight Yoakam; Steve Earle; Dolly Parton; Rosanne Cash and Linda Ronstadt moved country further towards rock influence.
[edit] 1970s–1980s
[edit] Outlaw country
Main article: Outlaw country
Derived from the traditional and honky tonk sounds of the late 1950s and 1960s, including Ray Price (whose band, the "Cherokee Cowboys", included Willie Nelson and Roger Miller) and mixed with the anger of an alienated subculture of the nation during the period, outlaw country revolutionized the genre of country music.

Willie Nelson
"After I left Nashville (the early 70s), I wanted to relax and play the music that I wanted to play, and just stay around Texas, maybe Oklahoma. Waylon and I had that outlaw image going, and when it caught on at colleges and we started selling records, we were O.K. The whole outlaw thing, it had nothing to do with the music, it was something that got written in an article, and the young people said, 'Well, that's pretty cool.' And started listening." (Willie Nelson)[49]
The term outlaw country is traditionally associated with Hank Williams, Jr, Willie Nelson, Waylon Jennings, David Allan Coe, Whitey Morgan & The 78's, John Prine, Billy Joe Shaver, Gary Stewart, Townes Van Zandt and with a few female vocalists such as Jessi Colter and Sammi Smith. It was encapsulated in the 1976 album Wanted! The Outlaws. A related subgenre is Red Dirt.
[edit] Country pop
Main article: Country pop
Country pop or soft pop, with roots in both the countrypolitan sound and in soft rock, is a subgenre that first emerged in the 1970s. Although the term first referred to country music songs and artists that crossed over to top 40 radio, country pop acts are now more likely to cross over to adult contemporary music. It started with pop music singers like Michael Nesmith, The Bellamy Brothers, Glen Campbell, John Denver, Olivia Newton-John, Marie Osmond, B. J. Thomas and Anne Murray having hits on the country charts. Campbell's "Rhinestone Cowboy" was one of the biggest crossover hits in country music history.

Lynn Anderson in concert
In 1974, Newton-John, an Australian pop singer, won the "Best Female Country Vocal Performance" as well as the Country Music Association's most coveted award for females, "Female Vocalist of the Year". In the same year, a group of artists, troubled by this trend, formed the short-lived Association of Country Entertainers. The debate raged into 1975, and reached its apex at that year's Country Music Association Awards when reigning Entertainer of the Year Charlie Rich (who himself had a series of crossover hits) presented the award to his successor, John Denver. As he read Denver's name, Rich set fire to the envelope with a cigarette lighter. The action was taken as a protest against the increasing pop style in country music.
During the mid-1970s, Dolly Parton, a highly successful mainstream country artist since the late '60s, mounted a high profile campaign to crossover to pop music, culminating in her 1977 hit "Here You Come Again", which topped the U.S. country singles chart, and also reached No. 3 on the pop singles charts. Parton's male counterpart, Kenny Rogers came from the opposite direction, aiming his music at the country charts, after a successful career in pop, rock and folk music, achieving success the same year with "Lucille", which topped the country charts and reached No. 5 on the U.S. pop singles charts. Parton and Rogers would both continue to have success on both country and pop charts simultaneously, well into the 1980s. Artists like Crystal Gayle, Ronnie Milsap and Barbara Mandrell would also find success on the pop charts with their records as well.

Dolly Parton
In 1975, author Paul Hemphill stated in the Saturday Evening Post, “Country music isn’t really country anymore; it is a hybrid of nearly every form of popular music in America.”[50]
During the early 1980s, country artists continued to see their records perform well on the pop charts. Willie Nelson and Juice Newton each had two songs in the top 5 of the Billboard Hot 100 in the early eighties: Nelson charted "Always On My Mind" (No. 5, 1982) and "To All The Girls I've Loved Before" (No. 5, 1984), and Newton achieved success with "Queen of Hearts" (No. 2, 1981) and "Angel of the Morning" (No. 4, 1981). Four country songs topped the Billboard Hot 100 in the 1980s: "Lady" by Kenny Rogers, from the late fall of 1980; "9 to 5" by Dolly Parton, "I Love a Rainy Night" by Eddie Rabbitt (these two back-to-back at the top in early 1981); and "Islands in the Stream", a duet by Dolly Parton and Kenny Rogers in 1983, a pop-country crossover hit written by Barry, Robin, and Maurice Gibb of the Bee Gees. Newton's "Queen of Hearts" almost reached No. 1, but was kept out of the spot by the pop ballad juggernaut "Endless Love" by Diana Ross and Lionel Richie. [51] Although there were few crossover hits in the latter half of the 1980s, one song — Roy Orbison's "You Got It", from 1989 — made the top 10 of both the Billboard Hot Country Singles" and Hot 100 charts.[52][53]
The record-setting, multi-platinum group, Alabama, was named Artist of the Decade for the 1980s by the Academy of Country Music.
Neocountry
In 1980, a style of "neocountry disco music" was popularized by the film Urban Cowboy,[54] which also included more traditional songs such as "The Devil Went Down to Georgia" by the Charlie Daniels Band.[55] A related subgenre is Texas country music.
Sales in record stores rocketed to $250 million in 1981; by 1984, 900 radio stations began programming country or neocountry pop full time. As with most sudden trends, however, by 1984 sales had dropped below 1979 figures.[54]
Truck driving country
Truck driving country music is a genre of country music[56] and is a fusion of honky tonk, country-rock and Bakersfield Sound.[57] It has the tempo of country-rock and the emotion of honky-tonk,[57] and its lyrics focus on a truck driver's lifestyle.[58] Truck driving country songs often deal with trucks and love.[57] Well-known artists who sing truck driving country include Dave Dudley, Red Sovine, Dick Curless, Red Simpson, Colonel Robert Morris, and Waylon Speed.[57] Dudley is known as the father of truck driving country.[58][59]
Neotraditionalist movement
Main article: Neotraditionalist country
During the mid-1980s, a group of new artists began to emerge who rejected the more polished country-pop sound that had been prominent on radio and the charts, in favor of more, traditional, "back-to-basics" production. Led by Randy Travis, whose 1986 debut album Storms of Life, sold four million copies and was Billboard's year-end top country album of 1987, many of the artists during the latter half of the '80s drew on traditional honky tonk, bluegrass, folk and western swing. Artists who typified this sound included Travis Tritt, Ricky Skaggs, Kathy Mattea, George Strait and The Judds.
1990s

Garth Brooks
Country music was aided by the FCC's Docket 80-90, which led to a significant expansion of FM radio in the 1980s by adding numerous higher-fidelity FM signals to rural and suburban areas. At this point, country music was mainly heard on rural AM radio stations; the expansion of FM was particularly helpful to country music, which migrated to FM from the AM band as AM became overcome by talk radio. This wider availability of country music led to producers seeking to polish their product for a wider audience.
With his debut on the national country music scene in 1989, singer and songwriter Clint Black would usher in a new sound that would define much of country music for the 1990s and beyond.[citation needed]
In the 1990s, country music became a worldwide phenomenon thanks to Billy Ray Cyrus and Garth Brooks.[60][61][62] The latter enjoyed one of the most successful careers in popular music history, breaking records for both sales and concert attendance throughout the decade. The RIAA has certified his recordings at a combined (128× platinum), denoting roughly 113 million U.S. shipments.[63]
Mindy McCready, Jo Dee Messina, Shania Twain, Faith Hill all released platinum selling albums in the 90s.
The Dixie Chicks became one of the most popular country bands in the 90s and early 00s. Their 1998 debut album Wide Open Spaces went on to become certified 12x platinum while their 1999 album Fly went on to become 10x platinum.
In the early-mid 1990s, country western music was influenced by the popularity of line dancing. This influence was so great that Chet Atkins was quoted as saying "The music has gotten pretty bad, I think. It's all that damn line dancing."[64] By the end of the decade, however, at least one line dance choreographer complained that good country line dance music was no longer being released.
Alternative country
Main article: Alternative country
In the 1990s, alternative country came to refer to a diverse group of musicians and singers operating outside the traditions and industry of mainstream country music. In general, they eschewed the high production values and pop outlook of the Nashville-dominated industry, to produce music with a lo-fi sound, frequently infused with a strong punk and alternative aesthetic, bending the traditional rules of country music. Lyrics were often bleak, gothic or socially aware. Key alternative country artists include Lyle Lovett, Steve Earle, Uncle Tupelo, Son Volt, Lucinda Williams,[65] Ryan Adams, Will Oldham, Drive-By Truckers, and Old 97's.
2000s

Carrie Underwood
Several rock and pop stars have ventured into country music. In 2000, Richard Marx made a brief cross-over with his Days In Avalon album, which features five country songs and several singers and musicians. Alison Krauss sang background vocals to Marx's single "Straight From My Heart." Also, Bon Jovi had a hit single, "Who Says You Can't Go Home", with Jennifer Nettles of Sugarland. Singer song writer Unknown Hinson became famous for his appearance in the Charlotte television show Wild,Wild, South. After which Unknown Hinson started his own band and toured in southern states. Other rock stars who featured a country song on their albums were Don Henley and Poison.
One infrequent, but consistent theme in modern country music is that of proud, stubborn individualism. "Country Boy Can Survive" and "Copperhead Road"[66] are two of the more serious songs along those lines; while "Some Girls Do"[67] and "Redneck Woman"[68] are more light-hearted variations on the theme.

Taylor Swift
In 2005, country singer Carrie Underwood rose to fame as the winner of the fourth season of American Idol and became a multi-platinum selling recording artist and multiple Grammy Award winner. With her first single, "Inside Your Heaven", Underwood became the only country artist to have a #1 Hit on Billboard Hot 100 Songs chart in the 2000-2009 decade. In 2007, Underwood won the Grammy Award for Best New Artist and became the first country artist in 10 years to win such award and the second of only three to ever win it. Underwood also made history by becoming the seventh woman to win Entertainer Of The Year for the Academy of Country Music Awards, and the first woman in history to win Entertainer of the Year for the Academy of Country Music Awards twice, as well as twice consecutively. Underwood's debut album, "Some Hearts", was not only the fastest-selling debut album by any country artist in history, but was ranked by Billboard.com as the #1 Country Album of the 2000-2009 decade.
In 2008, Taylor Swift rose as a major country-pop artist, with her single "Love Story" becoming the first country song to reach No. 1 one on the Nielsen BDS CHR/Top 40 chart. Another of her singles, "You Belong with Me", also reached No. 1, making Swift the only country artist to have two No. 1 singles atop the chart. Both "Love Story" and "You Belong with Me" became the best-selling country song of all time, with "Love Story" in the first position with a domestic total of 4.4 million digital copies sold, and "You Belong with Me" in the second with 3.4 million sales, respectively. In 2010, Swift's second album "Fearless" was awarded the Grammy Award for Album of the Year, becoming the first album in history to win the American Music Award (AMA), Academy of Country Music Award (ACM), Country Music Association Award (CMA), and the Grammy Award for Album of the Year in the same year.
In the same year, Hootie & the Blowfish vocalist Darius Rucker released his second solo album and country music debut, Learn to Live. The first three singles from that album all debuted at No. 1, making Rucker the first solo artist to debut with three No. 1 hits in over a decade. He is also the first African American with a No. 1 country hit since Charley Pride in 1983.
In 2009, George Strait was named Artist of the Decade by the Academy of Country Music.
2010s
In 2010, the group Lady Antebellum won five Grammys, including the coveted Song of the Year and Record of the Year for "Need You Now".International
Canada
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Main articles: Canadian Country Music Association and Canadian Country Music Hall of Fame
Outside of the US, Canada has the largest country music fan and artist base. Mainstream country music is culturally ingrained in the Maritimes and the prairie provinces: areas with large numbers of rural residents. Canadian country music originated in Atlantic Canada in the form of British and Irish folk music popular amongst Irish and Scottish immigrants to Canada's Maritime Provinces (Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island). Like the southern United States and Appalachia, all three regions are of heavy British Isles stock and rural; as such, The development of country music in the Maritimes mirrored the development of country music in the US south and Appalachia.
Don Messer's Jubilee was a Halifax, Nova Scotia based country/folk variety television show that was broadcast nationally from 1957 to 1969. It out drew the Ed Sullivan Show from the United States and became the #1 rated television show in Canada throughout much of the 1960s. Don Messer's Jubilee followed a consistent format throughout its years, beginning with a tune named "Goin' to the Barndance Tonight", followed by fiddle tunes by Messer, songs from some of his "Islanders" including singers Marg Osburne and Charlie Chamberlain, the featured guest performance, and a closing hymn. It ended with "Till We Meet Again".
The guest performance slot gave national exposure to numerous Canadian folk musicians, including Stompin' Tom Connors and Catherine McKinnon. Some Maritime country performers went on to further fame beyond Canada. Hank Snow, Wilf Carter (also known as Montana Slim), and Anne Murray are the three most notable.
The cancellation of the show by the public broadcaster in 1969 caused a nationwide protest, including the raising of questions in the Canadian parliament.
Despite country's roots in the Maritimes, many traditional country artists are present in Eastern and Western Canada. They make common use of fiddle and pedal steel guitar styles. Some notable Canadian country artists include: Shania Twain, Blue Rodeo, Marg Osburne, Hank Snow, Johnny Mooring, Don Messer, Doc Walker, Emerson Drive, Paul Brandt, The Wilkinsons, Wilf Carter, Michelle Wright, Corb Lund and the Hurtin' Albertans, Stompin' Tom Connors, Terri Clark, Crystal Shawanda, Shane Yellowbird, The Road Hammers, Anne Murray, and Prairie Oyster and The Higgins.
Australia
Main article: Australian country music

Olivia Newton-John singing in Sydney in 2008.
Australian country music has a long tradition. Influenced by American country music it has developed a distinct style, shaped by British and Irish folk ballads and Australian bush balladeers like Henry Lawson and Banjo Paterson. Country instruments, including the guitar, banjo, fiddle and harmonica create the distinctive sound of country music in Australia and accompany songs with strong storyline and memorable chorus.
Folk songs sung in Australia between the 1780s and 1920s based around such themes as the struggle against government tyranny, or the lives of bushrangers, swagmen, drovers, stockmen and shearers continue to influence the genre. This strain of Australian country, with lyrics focusing on Australian subjects, is generally known as "bush music" or "bush band music". Waltzing Matilda, often regarded as Australia's unofficial National anthem, is a quintessential Australian country song, influenced more by British and Irish folk ballads than by American Country and Western music. The lyrics were composed by the poet Banjo Paterson in 1895. Other popular songs from this tradition include The Wild Colonial Boy, Click Go The Shears, The Queensland Drover and The Dying Stockman. Later themes which endure to the present include the experiences of war, of droughts and flooding rains, of Aboriginality and of the railways and trucking routes which link Australia's vast distances.[70][71]
Pioneers of a more Americanised popular country music in Australia included Tex Morton (known as The Father of Australian Country Music) in the 1930s and other early stars like Buddy Williams, Shirley Thoms and Smoky Dawson. In 1952, Dawson began a radio show, and went on to national stardom as a singing cowboy of radio, TV and film.
Slim Dusty (1927–2003) was known as the King of Australian Country Music, and helped to popularise the Australian bush ballad. His successful career spanned almost six decades and his 1957 hit "Pub With No Beer" was the biggest-selling record by an Australian to that time, and with over seven million record sales in Australia he is the most successful artist in Australian musical history[72] Dusty recorded and released his one-hundredth album in the year 2000 and was given the honour of singing Waltzing Matilda in the closing ceremony of the Sydney 2000 Olympic Games. Dusty's wife Joy McKean penned several of his most popular songs.
Chad Morgan, who began recording in the 1950s has represented a vaudeville style of comic Australian country; Frank Ifield achieved considerable success in the early 1960s, especially in the UK Singles Charts and Reg Lindsay was one of the first Australians to perform at Nashville's Grand Ole Opry in 1974.[73] Eric Bogle's 1972 folk lament to the Gallipoli campaign "And The Band Played Waltzing Matilda" recalled the British and Irish origins of Australian folk-country. Singer-songwriter Paul Kelly whose music style straddles folk, rock, and country is often described as the poet laureate of Australian music.[74]

Keith Urban in 2007
By the 1990s, country music had attained cross-over success in the pop charts with artists like James Blundell and James Reyne singing "Way Out West", and country star Kasey Chambers winning the ARIA for Best Female Artist in 2003. The cross-over influence of Australian country is also evident in the music of successful contemporary bands The Waifs and The John Butler Trio. Nick Cave has been heavily influenced by the country artist Johnny Cash. In 2000, Cash, covered Cave's "The Mercy Seat" on the album American III: Solitary Man, seemingly repaying Cave for the compliment he paid by covering Cash's "The Singer" (originally "The Folk Singer") on his Kicking Against the Pricks album. Subsequently, Cave cut a duet with Cash on a version of Hank Williams' "I'm So Lonesome I Could Cry" for Cash's American IV: The Man Comes Around album (2002).
Popular contemporary performers of Australian country music include: John Williamson (who wrote the iconic "True Blue"), Lee Kernaghan (whose hits include "Boys From the Bush" and "the Outback Club"), Gina Jeffreys and Sara Storer. In the USA, Olivia Newton John, Sherrié Austin and Keith Urban have attained great success.

Ruby Hunter and Archie Roach at the 2009 Tamworth Country Music Festival.
Country music has also been a particularly popular form of musical expression among Indigenous Australians. Troy Cassar-Daley is among Australia's successful contemporary indigenous performers Aboriginal artists and Kev Carmody and Archie Roach employ a combination of folk-rock and country music to sing about Aboriginal rights issues.[76]
The Tamworth Country Music Festival began in 1973 and now attracts up to a 100,000 visitors annually. Held in Tamworth, New South Wales (Country music capital of Australia), it celebrates the culture and heritage of Australian country music. During the festival the CMAA holds the Country Music Awards of Australia ceremony awarding the Golden Guitar trophies.
Other significant country music festivals include the Whittlesea Country Music Festival (near Melbourne) and Boyup Brook Country Music Festival (Western Australia) in February; the Bamera Country Music Festival in June (South Australia), the National Country Muster held in Gympie during August, Mildura Country Music Festival for "independent" performers during October and the Canberra Country Music Festival held in the national capital during November. Some festivals are quite unique in their location: Grabine State Park in New South Wales promotes Australian country through the Grabine Music Muster Festival; Marilyns Country Music Festival is a unique event held in South Australia's Smoky Bay in September and is the only music festival in the world using an oyster barge as a stage.
Country HQ showcases new talent on the rise in the country music scene downunder. CMC (the Country Music Channel), a 24 hour music channel dedicated to non-stop country music, can be viewed on pay tv and features once a year the Golden Guitar Awards, CMAs and CCMAs alongside international shows such as The Wilkinsons, The Road Hammers, and Country Music Across America.
Other international country music
Tom Roland, from the Country Music Association International, explains Country Music’s global popularity: “In this respect, at least, Country Music listeners around the globe have something in common with those in the United States. In Germany, for instance, Rohrbach identifies three general groups that gravitate to the genre: people intrigued with the American cowboy icon, middle-aged fans who seek an alternative to harder rock music and younger listeners drawn to the pop-influenced sound that underscores many current Country hits.”[77]
One of the first Americans to perform country music abroad was George Hamilton IV. He was the first country musician to perform in the Soviet Union; he also toured in Australia and the Middle East. He was deemed the "International Ambassador of Country Music" for his contributions to the globalization of country music.[78] Johnny Cash, Emmylou Harris, Keith Urban, and Dwight Yoakam have also made numerous international tours.
The Country Music Association undertakes various initiatives to promote country music internationally.
In the United Kingdom, a country-derived genre known as skiffle peaked in the 1950s thanks to the efforts of Lonnie Donegan; though the genre as a whole was very short-lived, most of the bands involved with the British Invasion began their careers as skiffle musicians.
In South America, on the last weekend of September, the yearly "San Pedro Country Music Festival"[80] takes places in the town of San Pedro, Argentina. The festival features bands from different places of Argentina, as well as international artist from Brazil, Uruguay, Chile, Peru and the United States.
In India, the Anglo-Indian community is well known for enjoying and performing country music. An annual concert festival called "Blazing Guitars"[81] held in Chennai brings together Anglo-Indian musicians from all over the country (including some who have emigrated to places like Australia).
In Ireland TG4 began a quest for Ireland's next country star called Glór Tíre, translated as Country Voice, it is now in its 6th season and is one of TG4 most watched TV shows. A recent success in the Irish arena has been Crystal Swing.
In Sweden, Rednex rose to stardom combining country music with electro-pop in the 1990s. In 1994, the group had a worldwide hit with their version of the traditional Southern tune "Cotton-Eyed Joe". Other notable Swedish country acts include Jill Johnson and Calaisa.
Rhodesia during the 1970s had an active country and western music scene. Many songs combined country ballads with patriotic or military inspired lyrics. For example, Clem Tholet's Rhodesians Never Die rose to the top of the Rhodesian pop charts.

LET US RESPECT THE SOCIAL CONTRACT WE SIGNED

LET US RESPECT THE SOCIAL CONTRACT WE SIGNED

Article 18 (clause 1) of the 1992 Constitution of the Republic of Ghana states that “Every person has the right to own property either alone or in association with others.” The Constitution also gives every citizen a right to life, liberty, fair trial, equality and freedom from discrimination, freedom of speech and expression, freedom to form or join political parties and to participate in political activities and elect leaders. The rights to life, liberty and to own property are called natural rights, basic rights or fundamental rights.

The concept of natural or basic rights means that all persons automatically have these rights because they are human beings.

Everyone is born with these basic rights and they should not be taken without a person’s agreement.

The 1992 Constitution gives every citizen of Ghana of 18 years or above and of sound mind the right to vote and is entitled to be registered as a voter for the purposes of public elections and referenda.

When we vote and elect our government, it means that we give up some of our rights and freedoms in exchange for our protection and security. This is to say that, people agree to follow laws in exchange for their protection and security.

Our Constitution also gives us the right to choose a government, and the government in turn has responsibility to protect our fights and seek our welfare by providing food, shelter, clothing, education, healthcare to mention just a few. This agreement is called a Social Contract.

John Locke, an English scholar and a political thinker argued that government is created by a common agreement (That is treaty/contract) among human beings to serve the interest of other communities. Therefore all forms of rules should be based on agreement and consent of the people. Once there is a contract, there is an offer and an acceptance.

We, as people went to the polls and voted for this new government, telling them that we have accepted whatever offers they laid on the table in the political market-place and that we have given them the mandate to govern or rule over us.

I want to use your medium to remind President John Evan Atta Mills that during his campaign when he was the presidential candidate of the National Democratic Congress, he made it clear that he was signing a social contract with the people of Ghana and that if he was voted form he would fulfill his part of the contract.

I am appealing to other officers like the Members of Parliament, Ministers, District Chief Executives and Assemblymen and women who are agents of the president to also fulfill their part of the contract by addressing the problems of the people with speed and efficiency.

As citizens of Ghana, we must also carryout our side of the contract by raising high the good name of our country, Ghana, paying our taxes upholding and defending the Constitution, promoting natural unity and living in unity with others.

I also entreat all Ghanaians to co-operate with the law-enforcement and help to protect the environment and help to protect public property and funds.

Finally, I would like to remind all of us (Both electorate and those in authorities) that if we honour the social agreement that we have signed, it will help maintain governmental stability, peace and order. It also reduces the extent to which the repressive machinery of the state is exercised.

DESMOND LAMPTEY

GHANA BROADCASTING CORPORATION

( UNIIQ 95.7FM )

ACCRA.

ASSIGNMENT: KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY

KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY

Give three (3) definitions of knowledge society

Ans:

(1) Broadly speaking, the term “knowledge society” refers to any society where knowledge is the primary product resource instead of capital and labour.

It may also refer to the use a certain society gives to information.

A “knowledge society” creates, shares and uses knowledge for the prosperity and well being of its society.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/knowledge-society



(2) “Knowledge Society” is a society that creates, shares and uses knowledge for the prosperity and well-being of its people.

http://www.degitalstrategy.govt.nz/Resources/Glossary-of-key-terms



(3) Knowledge Society is one which places an explicit and principal value on knowledge as means to achieve economic and social well-being.

It is one which features knowledge prominently among the basic needs of all its citizens and wills all citizens to engage productively with knowledge.

http://www.eclac.cl/socindto/noticias/noticias/6/26546/lctpol06/pdf






PRESENTED BY:

DESMOND NII LAMPTEY
DCSM 2010036
DIPLOMA 2
MORNING

ASSIGNMENT: INFORMATION SOCIETY

INFORMATION SOCIETY
GIVE THREE DEFINITION OF INFORMATION SOCIETY

The term “Information Society” also known as InSoc seems to have originated in Japan in the 1960s, although its history is usually traced to the concept “post industrial” society, first proposed by the sociologist Daniel Bell (1973).

Information, according to the Cambridge International Dictionary of English, ‘is the knowledge about something especially facts and news. Information is also facts told or discovered. ‘

Society is an ordered community; a particular system of ordering the community.

Therefore, the three (3) definitions of Information Society are as follows

(1) Melody (1990), describes Information Society simply as those that have “become dependent upon complex electronic information networks and which allocate a major portion of their resources to information and communication activities.”

McQuail’s Mass Communication Theory (5th Edition)
Author: Denis McQuail
Publishers SAGE Publications

(2) ‘Information Society is a term for a society in which the creation, distribution and manipulation of information has become the most significant economic and cultural activity.’

http://whatis.techtarget.com/definition

(3) Information Society refers to a situation where information and communication technologies are integrated in industrial production and information dissemination in all fields.

Technology instigates a new approach to the production, distribution and consumption of information. Information Society refers to a situation where information becomes a source of income generation: where employment is found mostly in the information sector.

http://cbdd.wsu.edu/kewcontent/cd out put/ TR501


In conclusion, Information Society is a society where communication and information technologies influence the everyday lives of most of its members.


PRESENTED BY

DESMOND NII LAMPTEY
DCSM 2010036
DIPLOMA 2
MORNING

COMPARE AND CONTRAST THE LIBERTARIAN AND SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY THEORIES

QUESTION
Compare and contrast the Libertarian Theory and the Social Responsibility Theory of the Press


ANSWER
Libertarian Theory and Social Responsibility Theory are among the other theories which come under the Normative Theories of the Media or the Press. They are four (4) theories which were propounded by three (3) people namely Wilbur Schramm, Fred Seaton Siebert and Theodore Peterson in 1956 in the book Four (4) Theories of the Press. The four theories of the press from which I am about to look at two (2) was trying to clarify the connection between media and political society in the modern world.

The four (4) theories are:

The Authoritarian Theory
The Libertarian Theory
The Social Responsibility Theory
The Soviet Community Theory

Along the line, Denis McQuail criticized the above four (4) that, they are biased that is, they are western centered. In his book ‘Mass Communication Theory: An introduction’, he developed two (2) other theories to take care of the biases: These are, The Development Concept of the Press and the Democratic Participant Theory

Among the above, we are going to look at the similarities and differences of the libertarian Theory and Social Responsibility Theory, but first, let us consider Normative Theory.

Normative Theory

Normative is a word from norm which according to the Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary means ‘a situation or a pattern of behaviour that is usually expected or accepted within a particular group or society.’ It means the norm, that is, what is supposed to be done

Theory, according to the Cambridge International Dictionary of English ‘is a formal statement of the rules on which a subject of study is based or on ideas which re suggested to explain fact or event or more generally n opinion or explanation.’

Therefore, normative theory is how the media is supposed to behave in a certain political, economic and social system. Normative theory is a theory that describes a norm or standard of behaviour that ought to be followed as opposed to the one that actually is followed. Ref: www.questia.com/index.com (14 May, 2009)
It is also any theory which seeks to explain or predict what would happen under theoretical constraints; what ought to be; such as perfect competition, rather than what is or will be. Ref www.highbeam.com/doc/1015 - normative theory.html
Article from: A dictionary Geography by Susan Mayhew therefore normative theories of the media are the ideal views of how journalism or media ought to be. For example when we speak of normative theory we refer to the ideas of rights and expectations of benefit from the media to individuals and society. Ref. McQuail’s Mass Communication Theory P. 163

LIBERTARIAN THEORY

The Libertarian Theory came in when democracy arrived (i.e. when people had the right to vote), this theory was adopted in England after 1688 and in the U S and it is influential elsewhere in the world. Its purpose is to inform entertain, sell as well as discover truth and check on government. Ownership is chiefly private. Before the Libertarian Theory there was the Authoritarian Theory but some factors weakened that theory: the idea of religions freedom, expansion of economic freedom and the idea of enlightenment. The emphasis on personal freedom and democracy also helped greatly for this theory to come.

The rise in of libertarian ideas especially in the 17th Century also contributed. Writers and philosophers like Milton John Locke, Saint Simone and others argued that man is rational and able to discern between truth and falsehood and therefore, can choose between a better and worse alternative. This theory also says that man is capable of determining his own destiny when given all the facts will make the right choice
In this theory everybody has the right to be free. The media used it and they went too far. They reported on anything like sex, explicit things, showed dead bodies and so on. That was how they got the name ‘Yellow Journalism.’ By 1949 in the U S A people were fed up with the media because they reported on anything and were infringing on people’s privacy and right. This led to the Social Responsibility Theory (S.R.T.).

SOCIAL RESPONSIBILY THEORY

This is a compliment to the Libertarian Theory. It was practiced in the U.S in the 20th Century. The purpose is to inform entertain, sell and also to raise conflict to the plane of discussion. Here Ownership is private.
It is the outgrowth of the libertarian theory. Around the 40s, the Libertarian Theory had problems with the total freedom they enjoyed. The media misused the word freedom. The media or press impeded on other people’s freedom. The people said that they (the media) should regulate their freedom: They should practice self regulation.
That was when the Hutchin’s Committee was formed in 1949 to look at how the media work. Based on their findings, they came out with: ‘the media should be free but they should have a self imposed responsibility.’

That is to say that they should make sure that their freedom does not go over board. So here, this theory unlike the libertarian talks about freedom but is said that your freedom should come with a responsibility because freedom without responsibility can go astray.

‘The theory takes a philosophical view that even though man is rational and can reason he is reluctant to do so. Siebert, Peterson, and Schramm noted that “freedom of expression under the Social Responsibility Theory is not in absolute rights under the pure Libertarian Theory…. One’s right to freedom of expression must be balanced against the private rights of others and against vital social interest.’ Ref. Four Theories of the Press: bookgoogle.com.

Both theories have some similarities and differences. One is seemingly an outgrowth of the other. Now after talking about the two theories we will look at their similarities (comparisons) and differences (contrasts).

The very first point I would like to raise is the fact that they are both theories of the press or the media. This is a similarity. As we have already discussed, the normative theory talks about how the media ought to behave in a particular society and both the Libertarian and the Social Responsibility Theories states how the press should behave in society. The fifth edition of the book “Mass Communication Theory by Denis McQuail” says that normative theory states the idea of how the media ought to, or are expected to be organized and to behave in the wider public or for the good of the society as a whole. They both look at how the press should functioning particular political, economic and social system.

The Libertarian Theory and Social Responsibility Theories looks at media structure and performance. They both look at whether the political and social systems provide the media freedom from the state and does it allow for multiplicity of different channels.

Secondly, the Libertarian Theory and the Social Responsibility Theory mention freedom. When we take a look at the two(2) theories, unlike the authoritarian, here, the media is free from control by government or other powerful interests, sufficient to allow them to report and express freely and independently and to meet the needs of their audiences. People should also be free to receive the media of their choice. Ref: McQuail’s Mass media Communication Theory.

Relating this to a third world country like Ghana, I can strongly say that the media is under no control from the government. The Government of Ghana does not instruct any of the media houses on which programme to show on the television or which programmes to broadcast on radio. The media in Ghana is allowed to report and express freely. An example is Joy fm which is owned by Multimedia Broadcasting Company, it broadcast freely, giving to its target audience the things to meet their needs. They are not controlled by the government.

Even though we have stated that both of them talks about freedom, Libertarian Theory talks about total and absolute freedom. While in contrast the Social Responsibility Theory reaffirms the principles of freedom but added to them the notion of social responsibility freedom of expression under the Social Responsibility Theory is not an absolute right as under pure Libertarian Theory. “The notion of rights, costless, unconditional, conferred by the creator at birth, was a marvelous principle against arbitrary governments and had its historical work to do” says the Hutchins commission. “But in the context of an achieved political freedom, the need of limitation becomes evident”. One’s right to freedom of expression must be balanced against the private rights of others and against vital social interest”. Ref. Four Theories of The Press by Fred Seaton Siebert, Theodore Peterson, and Wilbur Schramm (books.google.com.gh). Social Responsibility Theory states that, it is far more in keeping with a free society that men achieve responsibility through their own wish and self-control than through some external force.

Yes there are a lot of media houses in Ghana. They are not controlled by the government, but it is believed that they become responsible of their actions. Here we can see the two (2) theories at play because there are many media houses but they are codes and regulations to guide them. The media due to Libertarian Theory can report on anything but the S R T tells you, you should be guided by codes and ethics of the society. As the Hutchin’s Commission stated in one of their finding: “Man is to remain free, he must live by reason instead of passively accepting what he sees, hears, and feels. Therefore, the more alert element of the community must drive him into the exercise of his reason. Without such goading, man is not likely to be moved to seek truth. The laziness which keeps him from using his gift of reason extends to all public discussion. Man’s aim is not to find truth but to satisfy his immediate needs and desire. There are some newspapers in Ghana here, which reports on anything without responsibility. Today if you go to the news stands, there are shouting headlines on sex. Due to the freedom, that is absolute freedom they just bring these pictures forgetting that children also come to the news stand, showing no responsibility.

Some newspapers too report on anything and not the truth because of the freedom and the fact they have to fill their pockets. They report on issues without checking and double checking, feeding the society with anything. Due to the Libertarian Theory, some of the television stations show anything and do not care about the society they are transmitting to. They even show dead bodies without any prior notice.

But again, a television station like G T V will not do that because they know they owe society a responsibility. Some of the newspapers will also check and re-check their facts before bringing some stories out due to the Social Responsibility Theory. Ghana Broadcasting Corporation as a media house do not just bring out any story to tarnish people images or broadcast a anything against the cultural behaviours of our society. They are very particular about the things they show on the television and those that are aired on the radio. Ghana Television for example shows a lot of educative programmes to serve the society. Among them is Adult Education in the six (6) languages and they discuss issues pertaining to the growth of society.

The Libertarian Theory of the mass media focuses on the press’ right to broadcast any opinion, either right or wrong, in an uncensored fashion. Libertarian advocates, argue that the mass media can promote wide variety of opinions without government intervention through regulation or other censorship.

Another Libertarian Theory belief is that the audience is a group of rational thinkers. The audience is able to distinguish right from wrong, and they are able to comprehend the difference between facts and opinions. Knowing that the audience is rational, mass media are then able to present a diverse number of ideas to everyone. These ideas can then be evaluated and tested by rational audience.

In contrast, the Social Responsibility Theory criticizes many of the views of Libertarian Theory. The Social Responsibility Theory stressed that the audience is not as rational as the Libertarian Theory suggests. They argue that many consumers have a distorted view of the world based on television viewing.

Social Responsibility Theory assumes that the state uses censorship and other legal measures to prevent and punish antisocial publication; but for the Libertarian Theory, there are no regulations.

John Milton said that individuals must have access to what is (in resent day Libertarian Theory) called “free market place of ides”. This is one of the most important functions that the mass media must fulfill according to this theory. That is, media serves to provide a forum in which people can exchange ideas, and through such dialogue, can arrive at the truth.

The Social Responsibility Theory on the other hand even though agrees to this “free market place of ideas” says that , the people who come to the market place should be regulated so that the people who come there are people who will come and say responsible things. It should not be a plat form for anybody to just trade ideas but it should check those who come in n dot of the place.

A typical example in Ghana is the private stations; they have people coming on to their stations to air their views but when it comes to appearing on GTV or Uniiq fm of the Ghana Broadcasting there is serious scrutinizing before people are allowed on air.

For both Social Responsibility Theory and Libertarian Theory there is free market where people put their ideas on table and then the people (that is, come and pick the ones that they think is good for them. But when it comes to the Social Responsibility Theory, there is some sort of sieving because your ideas should be responsible, not that anything is put on the market.

Further more, Libertarian Theory looks at ownership by an individual or few individuals while the Social Responsibility Theory is owned by the society, a lot of people and sometimes government. For Libertarian Theory accountability is to a few people while the Social Responsibility Theory accounts to the society.

The Libertarian Theory as it promotes total freedom looks t individuals coming with press houses. The individual when operating media house becomes accountable to the owner or owners and will do everything to get money to pay its workers. Even when showing an educative programme which help society, there will be a lot of advert running, there by distorting the message because he has to look for money to pay workers and bills.
On the contrary, the media under the Social Responsibility Theory is accountable to a larger group of people; that is, the society. So what they show or present on radio, television or print in the newspapers, should come with a lot of responsibility.

Finally according to Article 162 of t he 1992 Constitution of the Republic of Ghana, it states that “Freedom and independence of the media are hereby guaranteed.” It goes on to say that, there shall be no censorship on Ghana and that editors and publishers of newspapers and other institutions of the mass media shall not be subject to control or influence by Government. This is what the Libertarian Theory seeks to promote. There should be freedom without any impediment. Due to this, there are a lot of press houses which do things without any responsibility.

The Social Responsibility Theory on the other hand states there should not be absolute freedom. In view of this, the media has a code of ethics to guide its day-to-day activities. “A journalistic code of ethics refers to a set of principles of professional conducts that are adopted and controlled by journalists themselves.” Ref McQuail’s Mass Communication Theory.

For example Article 2 of the Ghana Journalists Association codes of Ethics, title Social Responsibility states that; “In collecting and disseminating information. The journalist should bear in mind his/her responsibility to the public at large and at the various interests in society.’’ This is a clear display of what the Social Responsibility Theory seeks to promote. This buttress the point of being responsible to the society in which you operate. The media in Ghana as much as reporting on anything because of absolute freedom, also go by the GJA code of ethics but some of them does not respect it because there is no law backing it. For instance, when there are issues for development to be discussed, one newspaper was reporting on the fact that, the former president of Ghana, Jerry John Rawlings has been given a stolen goat. Is this responsibility?

Undoubtedly, the two theories are in play here in Ghana since the above examples clearly states them. As we can see the Social Responsibility Theory is an outgrowth of the Libertarian Theory and they have similarities and difference. The purpose of the two (2) theories is to inform, entertain, sell, discover the truth as well as check on government, however Social Responsibility goes beyond “objective” reporting to “interpretive” reporting: A truthful, complete account of the news is not necessarily enough today, notes the Commission on Freedom of the press; “it is no longer enough truth bout the fact..” Today’s complex world often necessitate analysis, explanation, and interpretation. Ref; Four Theories of the Press by Fred Seation Siebert, Theodore Peterson and Wilbur Schramm.

“The journalist has the right to report, that is to write, it is human rights. The freedom is a right, it is privilege but should it be limitless? Freedom is a very expensive and difficult property on you. We are supposed to have the freedom but we should use it responsibly.” (Mr. Kwadwo Boateng, Lecturer, Mass Communication, Ghana Institute of Journalism.)

Though the Libertarian and Social Responsibility Theories have their differences and similarities, using the fusion of the two (2) as it is done in Ghana is allowed but can be very dangerous. Every freedom must go with a responsibility. Let me end with a quote by T. L Glasser (1986) ‘’Press Responsibility and First Amendment Values; in D Elliot (ed), Responsibility Journalism, pp. 88. New burry Park, CA: Sage.”

‘From the perspective of a negative concept, the press is under no obligation to extend its liberty or to accommodate the liberty of others… From the perspective of an affirmative understanding ….in contrast, freedom and responsibility stand side by side….(and) an individual’s ability to gain the benefits of liberty must be included among the conditions definitive of liberty.’





Reference:

Mass Communication Theory
By Denis McQuail
5th Edition

www.questia.com/index.com

www.highbeam.com/doc/1015 - normative theory.html

Four Theories of the Press: bookgoogle.com.

Ghana Journalists Association Code of Ethics

T. L Glasser (1986) Press Responsibility and First Amendment Values; in D Elliot (ed), Responsibility Journalism, pp. 88. New burry Park, CA: Sage.